Haskell an obvious choice.
\section[sec:prototype:output]{Output format}
- The second important question is: What will be our output format?
+ The second important question is: what will be our output format?
This output format should at least allow for programming the
hardware design into a field-programmable gate array (\small{FPGA}).
The choice of output format is thus limited by what hardware
% Draw the objects (and deferred labels)
drawObj (inp, front, desugar, simpl, back, out);
\stopuseMPgraphic
- \placefigure[right]{GHC compiler pipeline}{\useMPgraphic{ghc-pipeline}}
+ \placefigure[right]{GHC compiler pipeline}{\startboxed \useMPgraphic{ghc-pipeline}\stopboxed}
\startdesc{Frontend}
This step takes the Haskell source files and parses them into an
% Draw the objects (and deferred labels)
drawObj (inp, front, norm, vhdl, out);
\stopuseMPgraphic
- \placefigure[right]{Cλash compiler pipeline}{\useMPgraphic{clash-pipeline}}
+ \placefigure[right]{Cλash compiler pipeline}{\startboxed \useMPgraphic{clash-pipeline}\stopboxed}
\startdesc{Frontend}
This is exactly the frontend from the \small{GHC} pipeline, that
func arg
\stoplambda
This is function application. Each application consists of two
- parts: The function part and the argument part. Applications are used
+ parts: the function part and the argument part. Applications are used
for normal function \quote{calls}, but also for applying type
abstractions and data constructors.
A case expression evaluates its scrutinee, which should have an
algebraic datatype, into weak head normal form (\small{WHNF}) and
- (optionally) binds it to \lam{bndr}. Every alternative lists a
- single constructor (\lam{C0 ... Cn}). Based on the actual
- constructor of the scrutinee, the corresponding alternative is
- chosen. The binders in the chosen alternative (\lam{bndr0,0 ....
- bndr0,m} are bound to the actual arguments to the constructor in
- the scrutinee.
+ (optionally) binds it to \lam{bndr}. If bndr is wild, \refdef{wild
+ binders} it is left out. Every alternative lists a single constructor
+ (\lam{C0 ... Cn}). Based on the actual constructor of the scrutinee, the
+ corresponding alternative is chosen. The binders in the chosen
+ alternative (\lam{bndr0,0 .... bndr0,m} are bound to the actual
+ arguments to the constructor in the scrutinee.
This is best illustrated with an example. Assume
there is an algebraic datatype declared as follows\footnote{This
families and other non-standard Haskell stuff which we do not (plan to)
support.
+ \placeintermezzo{}{
+ \startframedtext[width=8cm,background=box,frame=no]
+ \startalignment[center]
+ {\tfa The \hs{id} function}
+ \stopalignment
+ \blank[medium]
+ A function that is probably present in every functional language, is
+ the \emph{identity} function. This is the function that takes a
+ single argument and simply returns it unmodified. In Haskell this
+ function is called \hs{id} and can take an argument of any type
+ (\ie, it is polymorphic).
+
+ The \hs{id} function will be used in the examples every now and
+ then.
+ \stopframedtext
+ }
In Core, every expression is typed. The translation to Core happens
after the typechecker, so types in Core are always correct as well
(though you could of course construct invalidly typed expressions
\stopdesc
Using this set of types, all types in basic Haskell can be represented.
-
\todo{Overview of polymorphism with more examples (or move examples
- here)}.
+ here)}
\section[sec:prototype:statetype]{State annotations in Haskell}
As noted in \in{section}[sec:description:stateann], Cλash needs some
equal to an existing type (or rather, a new name for an existing type).
This allows both the original type and the synonym to be used
interchangedly in a Haskell program. This means no explicit conversion
- is needed either. For example, a simple accumulator would become:
+ is needed. For example, a simple accumulator would become:
\starthaskell
+ -- This type synonym would become part of Cλash, it is shown here
+ -- just for clarity.
type State s = s
+
acc :: Word -> State Word -> (State Word, Word)
acc i s = let sum = s + i in (sum, sum)
\stophaskell
This looks nice in Haskell, but turns out to be hard to implement. There
- are no explicit conversion in Haskell, but not in Core either. This
- means the type of a value might be show as \hs{AccState} in some places,
- but \hs{Word} in others (and this can even change due to
- transformations). Since every binder has an explicit type associated
- with it, the type of every function type will be properly preserved and
- could be used to track down the statefulness of each value by the
- compiler. However, this makes the implementation a lot more complicated
- than it currently is using \hs{newtypes}.
+ is no explicit conversion in Haskell, but not in Core either. This
+ means the type of a value might be shown as \hs{State Word} in
+ some places, but \hs{Word} in others (and this can even change due
+ to transformations). Since every binder has an explicit type
+ associated with it, the type of every function type will be
+ properly preserved and could be used to track down the
+ statefulness of each value by the compiler. However, this would make
+ the implementation a lot more complicated than when using type
+ renamings as described in the next section.
% Use \type instead of \hs here, since the latter breaks inside
% section headings.
\subsection{Type renaming (\type{newtype})}
Haskell also supports type renamings as a way to declare a new type that
has the same (runtime) representation as an existing type (but is in
- fact a different type to the typechecker). With type renaming, an
+ fact a different type to the typechecker). With type renaming,
explicit conversion between values of the two types is needed. The
accumulator would then become:
\starthaskell
+ -- This type renaming would become part of Cλash, it is shown here
+ -- just for clarity.
newtype State s = State s
+
acc :: Word -> State Word -> (State Word, Word)
acc i (State s) = let sum = s + i in (State sum, sum)
\stophaskell
never cause name collisions with values). The difference with the type
synonym example is in the explicit conversion between the \hs{State
Word} and \hs{Word} types by pattern matching and by using the explicit
- the \hs{State constructor}.
+ the \hs{State} constructor.
- This explicit conversion makes the \VHDL\ generation easier: Whenever we
+ This explicit conversion makes the \VHDL\ generation easier: whenever we
remove (unpack) the \hs{State} type, this means we are accessing the
- current state (\eg, accessing the register output). Whenever we are a
+ current state (\ie, accessing the register output). Whenever we are
adding (packing) the \hs{State} type, we are producing a new value for
- the state (\eg, providing the register input).
+ the state (\ie, providing the register input).
When dealing with nested states (a stateful function that calls stateful
functions, which might call stateful functions, etc.) the state type
needed. For example, consider the following state type (this is just the
state type, not the entire function type):
- \starttyping
+ \starthaskell
State (State Bit, State (State Word, Bit), Word)
- \stoptyping
+ \stophaskell
We cannot leave all these \hs{State} type constructors out, since that
would change the type (unlike when using type synonyms). However, when
then become something like:
\starthaskell
+ -- These type renaminges would become part of Cλash, it is shown
+ -- here just for clarity.
newtype StateIn s = StateIn s
newtype StateOut s = StateOut s
+
acc :: Word -> StateIn Word -> (StateIn Word, Word)
acc i (StateIn s) = let sum = s + i in (StateIn sum, sum)
\stophaskell
This could make the implementation easier and the hardware
- descriptions less errorprone (you can no longer \quote{forget} to
+ descriptions less error-prone (you can no longer \quote{forget} to
unpack and repack a state variable and just return it directly, which
can be a problem in the current prototype). However, it also means we
need twice as many type synonyms to hide away substates, making this
- approach a bit cumbersome. It also makes it harder to copmare input
- and output state types, possible reducing the type safety of the
+ approach a bit cumbersome. It also makes it harder to compare input
+ and output state types, possible reducing the type-safety of the
descriptions.
\subsection[sec:prototype:substatesynonyms]{Type synonyms for substates}
As noted above, when using nested (hierarchical) states, the state types
of the \quote{upper} functions (those that call other functions, which
- call other functions, etc.) quickly becomes complicated. Also, when the
+ call other functions, etc.) quickly become complicated. Also, when the
state type of one of the \quote{lower} functions changes, the state
types of all the upper functions changes as well. If the state type for
each function is explicitly and completely specified, this means that a
losing any expressivity.
\subsubsection{Example}
- As an example of the used approach, there is a simple averaging circuit in
- \in{example}[ex:AvgState]. This circuit lets the accumulation of the
- inputs be done by a subcomponent, \hs{acc}, but keeps a count of value
- accumulated in its own state.\footnote{Currently, the prototype
- is not able to compile this example, since the built-in function
- for division has not been added.}
+ As an example of the used approach, a simple averaging circuit
+ is shown in \in{example}[ex:AvgState]. This circuit lets the
+ accumulation of the inputs be done by a subcomponent, \hs{acc},
+ but keeps a count of value accumulated in its own
+ state.\footnote{Currently, the prototype is not able to compile
+ this example, since there is no built-in function for division.}
\startbuffer[AvgState]
- -- The state type annotation
+ -- This type renaming would become part of Cλash, it is shown
+ -- here just for clarity
newtype State s = State s
-- The accumulator state type
%\stopcombination
\todo{Picture}
- \section{Implementing state}
+ \section{\VHDL\ generation for state}
Now its clear how to put state annotations in the Haskell source,
there is the question of how to implement this state translation. As
we have seen in \in{section}[sec:prototype:design], the translation to
\VHDL\ happens as a simple, final step in the compilation process.
- This step works on a core expression in normal form. The specifics
+ This step works on a Core expression in normal form. The specifics
of normal form will be explained in
\in{chapter}[chap:normalization], but the examples given should be
- easy to understand using the definitin of Core given above.
+ easy to understand using the definition of Core given above. The
+ conversion to and from the \hs{State} type is done using the cast
+ operator, \lam{▶}.
\startbuffer[AvgStateNormal]
acc = λi.λspacked.
let
-- Remove the State newtype
s = spacked ▶ Word
- s' = s + i
- o = s + i
+ sum = s + i
-- Add the State newtype again
- spacked' = s' ▶ State Word
- res = (spacked', o)
+ spacked' = sum ▶ State Word
+ res = (spacked', sum)
in
res
avg = λi.λspacked.
let
s = spacked ▶ (AccState, Word)
- accs = case s of (accs, _) -> accs
- count = case s of (_, count) -> count
+ accs = case s of (a, b) -> a
+ count = case s of (c, d) -> d
accres = acc i accs
- accs' = case accres of (accs', _) -> accs'
- sum = case accres of (_, sum) -> sum
+ accs' = case accres of (e, f) -> e
+ sum = case accres of (g, h) -> h
count' = count + 1
o = sum / count'
s' = (accs', count')
\subsection[sec:prototype:statelimits]{State in normal form}
Before describing how to translate state from normal form to
\VHDL, we will first see how state handling looks in normal form.
- What limitations are there on their use to guarantee that proper
- \VHDL\ can be generated?
+ How must their use be limited to guarantee that proper \VHDL\ can
+ be generated?
- We will try to formulate a number of rules about what operations are
+ We will formulate a number of rules about what operations are
allowed with state variables. These rules apply to the normalized Core
representation, but will in practice apply to the original Haskell
hardware description as well. Ideally, these rules would become part
(state) variables} and \emph{substate variables}, which will be
defined in the rules themselves.
+ These rules describe everything that can be done with state
+ variables and state-containing variables. Everything else is
+ invalid. For every rule, the corresponding part of
+ \in{example}[ex:AvgStateNormal] is shown.
+
\startdesc{State variables can appear as an argument.}
\startlambda
avg = λi.λspacked. ...
\lam{State} type.
If the result of this unpacking does not have a state type and does
- not contain state variables, there are no limitations on its use.
- Otherwise if it does not have a state type but does contain
- substates, we refer to it as a \emph{state-containing input
- variable} and the limitations below apply. If it has a state type
- itself, we refer to it as an \emph{input substate variable} and the
- below limitations apply as well.
+ not contain state variables, there are no limitations on its
+ use (this is the function's own state). Otherwise if it does
+ not have a state type but does contain substates, we refer to it
+ as a \emph{state-containing input variable} and the limitations
+ below apply. If it has a state type itself, we refer to it as an
+ \emph{input substate variable} and the below limitations apply
+ as well.
It may seem strange to consider a variable that still has a state
type directly after unpacking, but consider the case where a
\startdesc{Variables can be extracted from state-containing input variables.}
\startlambda
- accs = case s of (accs, _) -> accs
+ accs = case s of (a, b) -> a
\stoplambda
A state-containing input variable is typically a tuple containing
multiple, when the input variable is nested).
If the result has no state type and does not contain any state
- variables either, there are no further limitations on its use. If
- the result has no state type but does contain state variables we
- refer to it as a \emph{state-containing input variable} and this
- limitation keeps applying. If the variable has a state type itself,
- we refer to it as an \emph{input substate variable} and below
- limitations apply.
+ variables either, there are no further limitations on its use
+ (this is the function's own state). If the result has no state
+ type but does contain state variables we refer to it as a
+ \emph{state-containing input variable} and this limitation keeps
+ applying. If the variable has a state type itself, we refer to
+ it as an \emph{input substate variable} and below limitations
+ apply.
\startdesc{Input substate variables can be passed to functions.}
\startlambda
accres = acc i accs
- accs' = case accres of (accs', _) -> accs'
+ accs' = case accres of (e, f) -> e
\stoplambda
An input substate variable can (only) be passed to a function.
A function's output state is usually a tuple containing its own
updated state variables and all output substates. This result is
- built up using any single-constructor algebraic datatype.
+ built up using any single-constructor algebraic datatype
+ (possibly nested).
The result of these expressions is referred to as a
\emph{state-containing output variable}, which are subject to these
As soon as all a functions own update state and output substate
variables have been joined together, the resulting
state-containing output variable can be packed into an output
- state variable. Packing is done by casting into a state type.
+ state variable. Packing is done by casting to a state type.
\stopdesc
\startdesc{Output state variables can appear as (part of) a function result.}
to be passed to functions, the corresponding output substates
should be inserted into the output state in the same way. In other
words, each pair of corresponding substates in the input and
- output states should be passed / returned from the same called
+ output states should be passed to / returned from the same called
function.
The prototype currently does not check much of the above
As noted above, the basic approach when generating \VHDL\ for stateful
functions is to generate a single register for every stateful function.
We look around the normal form to find the let binding that removes the
- \lam{State} newtype (using a cast). We also find the let binding that
+ \lam{State} type renaming (using a cast). We also find the let binding that
adds a \lam{State} type. These are connected to the output and the input
of the generated let binding respectively. This means that there can
only be one let binding that adds and one that removes the \lam{State}
To keep the function definition correct until the very end of the
process, we will not deal with (sub)states until we get to the
\small{VHDL} generation. Then, we are translating from Core to
- \small{VHDL}, and we can simply ignore substates, effectively removing
- the substate components altogether.
+ \small{VHDL}, and we can simply generate no \VHDL for substates,
+ effectively removing them altogether.
But, how will we know what exactly is a substate? Since any state
argument or return value that represents state must be of the
must be careful to ignore only \emph{substates}, and not a
function's own state.
- In \in{example}[ex:AvgStateNorm] above, we should generate a register
- connected with its output connected to \lam{s} and its input connected
+ For \in{example}[ex:AvgStateNormal] above, we should generate a register
+ with its output connected to \lam{s} and its input connected
to \lam{s'}. However, \lam{s'} is build up from both \lam{accs'} and
\lam{count'}, while only \lam{count'} should end up in the register.
\lam{accs'} is a substate for the \lam{acc} function, for which a
function.
Fortunately, the \lam{accs'} variable (and any other substate) has a
- property that we can easily check: It has a \lam{State} type
- annotation. This means that whenever \VHDL\ is generated for a tuple
- (or other algebraic type), we can simply leave out all elements that
- have a \lam{State} type. This will leave just the parts of the state
- that do not have a \lam{State} type themselves, like \lam{count'},
- which is exactly a function's own state. This approach also means that
- the state part of the result is automatically excluded when generating
- the output port, which is also required.
+ property that we can easily check: it has a \lam{State} type. This
+ means that whenever \VHDL\ is generated for a tuple (or other
+ algebraic type), we can simply leave out all elements that have a
+ \lam{State} type. This will leave just the parts of the state that
+ do not have a \lam{State} type themselves, like \lam{count'},
+ which is exactly a function's own state. This approach also means
+ that the state part of the result (\eg\ \lam{s'} in \lam{res}) is
+ automatically excluded when generating the output port, which is
+ also required.
We can formalize this translation a bit, using the following
rules.
register specification.
\stopitemize
- When applying these rules to the description in
+ When applying these rules to the function \lam{avg} from
\in{example}[ex:AvgStateNormal], we be left with the description
in \in{example}[ex:AvgStateRemoved]. All the parts that do not
generate any \VHDL\ directly are crossed out, leaving just the
- actual flow of values in the final hardware.
+ actual flow of values in the final hardware. To illustrate the
+ change of the types of \lam{s} and \lam{s'}, their types are also
+ shown.
- \startlambda
+ \startbuffer[AvgStateRemoved]
avg = iλ.λ--spacked.--
let
+ s :: (--AccState,-- Word)
s = --spacked ▶ (AccState, Word)--
- --accs = case s of (accs, _) -> accs--
- count = case s of (--_,-- count) -> count
+ --accs = case s of (a, b) -> a--
+ count = case s of (--c,-- d) -> d
accres = acc i --accs--
- --accs' = case accres of (accs', _) -> accs'--
- sum = case accres of (--_,-- sum) -> sum
+ --accs' = case accres of (e, f) -> e--
+ sum = case accres of (--g,-- h) -> h
count' = count + 1
o = sum / count'
+ s' :: (--AccState,-- Word)
s' = (--accs',-- count')
--spacked' = s' ▶ State (AccState, Word)--
res = (--spacked',-- o)
in
res
- \stoplambda
+ \stopbuffer
+ \placeexample[here][ex:AvgStateRemoved]{Normalized version of \in{example}[ex:AvgState] with ignored parts crossed out}
+ {\typebufferlam{AvgStatRemoved}}
- When we would really leave out the crossed out parts, we get a slightly
- weird program: There is a variable \lam{s} which has no value, and there
- is a variable \lam{s'} that is never used. Together, these two will form
+ When we actually leave out the crossed out parts, we get a slightly
+ weird program: there is a variable \lam{s} which has no value, and there
+ is a variable \lam{s'} that is never used. But together, these two will form
the state process of the function. \lam{s} contains the "current" state,
\lam{s'} is assigned the "next" state. So, at the end of each clock
cycle, \lam{s'} should be assigned to \lam{s}.
- In the example the definition of \lam{s'} is still present, since
- it does not have a state type. The \lam{accums'} substate has been
- removed, leaving us just with the state of \lam{avg} itself.
-
As an illustration of the result of this function,
\in{example}[ex:AccStateVHDL] and \in{example}[ex:AvgStateVHDL] show the the \VHDL\ that is
- generated from the examples is this section.
+ generated by Cλash from the examples is this section.
\startbuffer[AvgStateVHDL]
entity avgComponent_0 is
end process state;
end architecture structural;
\stopbuffer
+
+ \startbuffer[AvgStateTypes]
+ package types is
+ subtype \unsigned_31\ is unsigned (0 to 31);
+
+ type \(,)unsigned_31\ is record
+ A : \unsigned_31\;
+ end record;
+ end package types;
+ \stopbuffer
+
\startbuffer[AccStateVHDL]
entity accComponent_1 is
port (\izAob3\ : in \unsigned_31\;
resetn : in std_logic);
end entity accComponent_1;
-
architecture structural of accComponent_1 is
signal \szAod3\ : \unsigned_31\;
signal \reszAonzAor3\ : \unsigned_31\;
end architecture structural;
\stopbuffer
+ \placeexample[][ex:AvgStateTypes]{\VHDL\ types generated for acc and avg from \in{example}[ex:AvgState]}
+ {\typebuffervhdl{AvgStateTypes}}
\placeexample[][ex:AccStateVHDL]{\VHDL\ generated for acc from \in{example}[ex:AvgState]}
- {\typebuffer[AccStateVHDL]}
+ {\typebuffervhdl{AccStateVHDL}}
\placeexample[][ex:AvgStateVHDL]{\VHDL\ generated for avg from \in{example}[ex:AvgState]}
- {\typebuffer[AvgStateVHDL]}
+ {\typebuffervhdl{AvgStateVHDL}}
% \subsection{Initial state}
% How to specify the initial state? Cannot be done inside a hardware
% function, since the initial state is its own state argument for the first
projects / matthijs / master-project / report.git / blobdiff