7 %% http://www.michaelshell.org/
8 %% for current contact information.
10 %% This is a skeleton file demonstrating the use of IEEEtran.cls
11 %% (requires IEEEtran.cls version 1.7 or later) with an IEEE conference paper.
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42 %% File list of work: IEEEtran.cls, IEEEtran_HOWTO.pdf, bare_adv.tex,
43 %% bare_conf.tex, bare_jrnl.tex, bare_jrnl_compsoc.tex
44 %%*************************************************************************
46 % *** Authors should verify (and, if needed, correct) their LaTeX system ***
47 % *** with the testflow diagnostic prior to trusting their LaTeX platform ***
48 % *** with production work. IEEE's font choices can trigger bugs that do ***
49 % *** not appear when using other class files. ***
50 % The testflow support page is at:
51 % http://www.michaelshell.org/tex/testflow/
55 % Note that the a4paper option is mainly intended so that authors in
56 % countries using A4 can easily print to A4 and see how their papers will
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58 % affected with changes in paper size (but the bottom and side margins will).
59 % Use the testflow package mentioned above to verify correct handling of
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62 % Also note that the "draftcls" or "draftclsnofoot", not "draft", option
63 % should be used if it is desired that the figures are to be displayed in
66 \documentclass[conference,pdf,a4paper,10pt,final,twoside,twocolumn]{IEEEtran}
67 % Add the compsoc option for Computer Society conferences.
69 % If IEEEtran.cls has not been installed into the LaTeX system files,
70 % manually specify the path to it like:
71 % \documentclass[conference]{../sty/IEEEtran}
73 % Some very useful LaTeX packages include:
74 % (uncomment the ones you want to load)
76 % *** MISC UTILITY PACKAGES ***
79 % Heiko Oberdiek's ifpdf.sty is very useful if you need conditional
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87 % The latest version of ifpdf.sty can be obtained from:
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91 % When switching from latex to pdflatex and vice-versa, the compiler may
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99 % *** CITATION PACKAGES ***
102 % cite.sty was written by Donald Arseneau
103 % V1.6 and later of IEEEtran pre-defines the format of the cite.sty package
104 % \cite{} output to follow that of IEEE. Loading the cite package will
105 % result in citation numbers being automatically sorted and properly
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107 % cite.sty will become [1], [2], [5]--[7], [9] using cite.sty. cite.sty's
108 % \cite will automatically add leading space, if needed. Use cite.sty's
109 % noadjust option (cite.sty V3.8 and later) if you want to turn this off.
110 % cite.sty is already installed on most LaTeX systems. Be sure and use
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130 % \DeclareGraphicsExtensions{.pdf,.jpeg,.png}
132 % or other class option (dvipsone, dvipdf, if not using dvips). graphicx
133 % will default to the driver specified in the system graphics.cfg if no
134 % driver is specified.
135 % \usepackage[dvips]{graphicx}
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159 % You can find documentation about the pdfTeX application at:
160 % http://www.tug.org/applications/pdftex
166 % *** MATH PACKAGES ***
168 %\usepackage[cmex10]{amsmath}
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178 % thus preventing page breaks from occurring within multiline equations. Use:
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189 % *** SPECIALIZED LIST PACKAGES ***
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193 % This package provides an algorithmic environment fo describing algorithms.
194 % You can use the algorithmic environment in-text or within a figure
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204 % Also of interest may be the (relatively newer and more customizable)
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206 % http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/macros/latex/contrib/algorithmicx/
211 % *** ALIGNMENT PACKAGES ***
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218 % respect to the quality of the end results, all users are strongly
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221 % latest version and documentation can be obtained at:
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225 %\usepackage{mdwmath}
227 % Also highly recommended is Mark Wooding's extremely powerful MDW tools,
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229 % and tables, respectively. The MDWtools set is already installed on most
230 % LaTeX systems. The lastest version and documentation is available at:
231 % http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/macros/latex/contrib/mdwtools/
234 % IEEEtran contains the IEEEeqnarray family of commands that can be used to
235 % generate multiline equations as well as matrices, tables, etc., of high
239 %\usepackage{eqparbox}
240 % Also of notable interest is Scott Pakin's eqparbox package for creating
241 % (automatically sized) equal width boxes - aka "natural width parboxes".
243 % http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/macros/latex/contrib/eqparbox/
249 % *** SUBFIGURE PACKAGES ***
250 %\usepackage[tight,footnotesize]{subfigure}
251 % subfigure.sty was written by Steven Douglas Cochran. This package makes it
252 % easy to put subfigures in your figures. e.g., "Figure 1a and 1b". For IEEE
253 % work, it is a good idea to load it with the tight package option to reduce
254 % the amount of white space around the subfigures. subfigure.sty is already
255 % installed on most LaTeX systems. The latest version and documentation can
257 % http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/obsolete/macros/latex/contrib/subfigure/
258 % subfigure.sty has been superceeded by subfig.sty.
262 %\usepackage[caption=false]{caption}
263 %\usepackage[font=footnotesize]{subfig}
264 % subfig.sty, also written by Steven Douglas Cochran, is the modern
265 % replacement for subfigure.sty. However, subfig.sty requires and
266 % automatically loads Axel Sommerfeldt's caption.sty which will override
267 % IEEEtran.cls handling of captions and this will result in nonIEEE style
268 % figure/table captions. To prevent this problem, be sure and preload
269 % caption.sty with its "caption=false" package option. This is will preserve
270 % IEEEtran.cls handing of captions. Version 1.3 (2005/06/28) and later
271 % (recommended due to many improvements over 1.2) of subfig.sty supports
272 % the caption=false option directly:
273 %\usepackage[caption=false,font=footnotesize]{subfig}
275 % The latest version and documentation can be obtained at:
276 % http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/macros/latex/contrib/subfig/
277 % The latest version and documentation of caption.sty can be obtained at:
278 % http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/macros/latex/contrib/caption/
283 % *** FLOAT PACKAGES ***
285 %\usepackage{fixltx2e}
286 % fixltx2e, the successor to the earlier fix2col.sty, was written by
287 % Frank Mittelbach and David Carlisle. This package corrects a few problems
288 % in the LaTeX2e kernel, the most notable of which is that in current
289 % LaTeX2e releases, the ordering of single and double column floats is not
290 % guaranteed to be preserved. Thus, an unpatched LaTeX2e can allow a
291 % single column figure to be placed prior to an earlier double column
292 % figure. The latest version and documentation can be found at:
293 % http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/macros/latex/base/
297 %\usepackage{stfloats}
298 % stfloats.sty was written by Sigitas Tolusis. This package gives LaTeX2e
299 % the ability to do double column floats at the bottom of the page as well
300 % as the top. (e.g., "\begin{figure*}[!b]" is not normally possible in
301 % LaTeX2e). It also provides a command:
303 % to enable the placement of footnotes below bottom floats (the standard
304 % LaTeX2e kernel puts them above bottom floats). This is an invasive package
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307 % version and documentation can be obtained at:
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309 % Documentation is contained in the stfloats.sty comments as well as in the
310 % presfull.pdf file. Do not use the stfloats baselinefloat ability as IEEE
311 % does not allow \baselineskip to stretch. Authors submitting work to the
312 % IEEE should note that IEEE rarely uses double column equations and
313 % that authors should try to avoid such use. Do not be tempted to use the
314 % cuted.sty or midfloat.sty packages (also by Sigitas Tolusis) as IEEE does
315 % not format its papers in such ways.
321 % *** PDF, URL AND HYPERLINK PACKAGES ***
324 % url.sty was written by Donald Arseneau. It provides better support for
325 % handling and breaking URLs. url.sty is already installed on most LaTeX
326 % systems. The latest version can be obtained at:
327 % http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/macros/latex/contrib/misc/
328 % Read the url.sty source comments for usage information. Basically,
335 % *** Do not adjust lengths that control margins, column widths, etc. ***
336 % *** Do not use packages that alter fonts (such as pslatex). ***
337 % There should be no need to do such things with IEEEtran.cls V1.6 and later.
338 % (Unless specifically asked to do so by the journal or conference you plan
339 % to submit to, of course. )
341 % correct bad hyphenation here
342 \hyphenation{op-tical net-works semi-conduc-tor}
344 % Macro for certain acronyms in small caps. Doesn't work with the
345 % default font, though (it contains no smallcaps it seems).
346 \def\acro#1{{\small{#1}}}
347 \def\VHDL{\acro{VHDL}}
349 \def\CLaSH{{\small{C}}$\lambda$a{\small{SH}}}
351 % Macro for pretty printing haskell snippets. Just monospaced for now, perhaps
352 % we'll get something more complex later on.
353 \def\hs#1{\texttt{#1}}
354 \def\quote#1{``{#1}"}
356 \newenvironment{xlist}[1][\rule{0em}{0em}]{%
358 \settowidth{\labelwidth}{#1:}
359 \setlength{\labelsep}{0.5cm}
360 \setlength{\leftmargin}{\labelwidth}
361 \addtolength{\leftmargin}{\labelsep}
362 \setlength{\rightmargin}{0pt}
363 \setlength{\parsep}{0.5ex plus 0.2ex minus 0.1ex}
364 \setlength{\itemsep}{0 ex plus 0.2ex}
365 \renewcommand{\makelabel}[1]{##1:\hfil}
370 \usepackage{paralist}
372 %include polycode.fmt
378 % can use linebreaks \\ within to get better formatting as desired
379 \title{C$\lambda$aSH: Structural Descriptions \\ of Synchronous Hardware using Haskell}
382 % author names and affiliations
383 % use a multiple column layout for up to three different
385 \author{\IEEEauthorblockN{Christiaan P.R. Baaij, Matthijs Kooijman, Jan Kuper, Marco E.T. Gerards, Bert Molenkamp, Sabih H. Gerez}
386 \IEEEauthorblockA{University of Twente, Department of EEMCS\\
387 P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE, Enschede, The Netherlands\\
388 c.p.r.baaij@@utwente.nl, matthijs@@stdin.nl}}
390 % \IEEEauthorblockN{Homer Simpson}
391 % \IEEEauthorblockA{Twentieth Century Fox\\
393 % Email: homer@thesimpsons.com}
395 % \IEEEauthorblockN{James Kirk\\ and Montgomery Scott}
396 % \IEEEauthorblockA{Starfleet Academy\\
397 % San Francisco, California 96678-2391\\
398 % Telephone: (800) 555--1212\\
399 % Fax: (888) 555--1212}}
401 % conference papers do not typically use \thanks and this command
402 % is locked out in conference mode. If really needed, such as for
403 % the acknowledgment of grants, issue a \IEEEoverridecommandlockouts
404 % after \documentclass
406 % for over three affiliations, or if they all won't fit within the width
407 % of the page, use this alternative format:
409 %\author{\IEEEauthorblockN{Michael Shell\IEEEauthorrefmark{1},
410 %Homer Simpson\IEEEauthorrefmark{2},
411 %James Kirk\IEEEauthorrefmark{3},
412 %Montgomery Scott\IEEEauthorrefmark{3} and
413 %Eldon Tyrell\IEEEauthorrefmark{4}}
414 %\IEEEauthorblockA{\IEEEauthorrefmark{1}School of Electrical and Computer Engineering\\
415 %Georgia Institute of Technology,
416 %Atlanta, Georgia 30332--0250\\ Email: see http://www.michaelshell.org/contact.html}
417 %\IEEEauthorblockA{\IEEEauthorrefmark{2}Twentieth Century Fox, Springfield, USA\\
418 %Email: homer@thesimpsons.com}
419 %\IEEEauthorblockA{\IEEEauthorrefmark{3}Starfleet Academy, San Francisco, California 96678-2391\\
420 %Telephone: (800) 555--1212, Fax: (888) 555--1212}
421 %\IEEEauthorblockA{\IEEEauthorrefmark{4}Tyrell Inc., 123 Replicant Street, Los Angeles, California 90210--4321}}
426 % use for special paper notices
427 %\IEEEspecialpapernotice{(Invited Paper)}
432 % make the title area
438 The abstract goes here.
440 % IEEEtran.cls defaults to using nonbold math in the Abstract.
441 % This preserves the distinction between vectors and scalars. However,
442 % if the conference you are submitting to favors bold math in the abstract,
443 % then you can use LaTeX's standard command \boldmath at the very start
444 % of the abstract to achieve this. Many IEEE journals/conferences frown on
445 % math in the abstract anyway.
452 % For peer review papers, you can put extra information on the cover
454 % \ifCLASSOPTIONpeerreview
455 % \begin{center} \bfseries EDICS Category: 3-BBND \end{center}
458 % For peerreview papers, this IEEEtran command inserts a page break and
459 % creates the second title. It will be ignored for other modes.
460 \IEEEpeerreviewmaketitle
463 \section{Introduction}
464 Hardware description languages has allowed the productivity of hardware
465 engineers to keep pace with the development of chip technology. Standard
466 Hardware description languages, like \VHDL\ and Verilog, allowed an engineer
467 to describe circuits using a programming language. These standard languages
468 are very good at describing detailed hardware properties such as timing
469 behavior, but are generally cumbersome in expressing higher-level
470 abstractions. These languages also tend to have a complex syntax and a lack of
471 formal semantics. To overcome these complexities, and raise the abstraction
472 level, a great number of approaches based on functional languages has been
473 proposed \cite{T-Ruby,Hydra,HML2,Hawk1,Lava,ForSyDe1,Wired,reFLect}. The idea
474 of using functional languages started in the early 1980s \cite{Cardelli1981,
475 muFP,DAISY,FHDL}, a time which also saw the birth of the currently popular
476 hardware description languages such as \VHDL. What gives functional languages
477 as hardware description languages their merits is the fact that basic
478 combinatorial circuits are equivalent to mathematical function, and that
479 functional languages lend themselves very well to describe and compose these
480 mathematical functions.
482 In an attempt to decrease the amount of work involved with creating all the
483 required tooling, such as parsers and type-checkers, many functional hardware
484 description languages are embedded as a domain specific language inside the
485 functional language Haskell \cite{Hydra,Hawk1,Lava,ForSyDe1,Wired}. What this
486 means is that a developer is given a library of Haskell functions and types
487 that together form the language primitives of the domain specific language.
488 Using these functions, the designer does not only describes a circuit, but
489 actually builds a large domain-specific datatype which can be further
490 processed by an embedded compiler. This compiler actually runs in the same
491 environment as the description; as a result compile-time and run-time become
492 hard to define, as the embedded compiler is usually compiled by the same
493 Haskell compiler as the circuit description itself.
495 The approach taken in this research is not to make another domain specific
496 language embedded in Haskell, but to use (a subset) of the Haskell language
497 itself to be used as hardware description language. By taking this approach,
498 we can capture certain language constructs, such as Haskell's choice elements
499 (if-statement, case-statment, etc.), which are not available in the functional
500 hardware description languages that are embedded in Haskell. As far as the
501 authors know, such extensive support for choice-elements is new in the domain
502 of functional hardware description language. As the hardware descriptions are
503 plain Haskell functions, these descriptions can be compiled for simulation
504 using using the optimizing Haskell compiler \GHC.
506 Like the standard hardware description languages, descriptions made in a
507 functional hardware description languages must eventually be converted into a
508 netlist. This research also features an a prototype translater called \CLaSH\
509 (pronounced: Clash), which converts the Haskell code to equivalently behaving synthesizable \VHDL\ code, ready to be converted to an actual netlist format by optimizing \VHDL\ synthesis tools.
511 \section{Hardware description in Haskell}
513 \subsection{Function application}
514 The basic syntactic elements of a functional program are functions
515 and function application. These have a single obvious \VHDL\
516 translation: each top level function becomes a hardware component,
517 where each argument is an input port and the result value is the
518 (single) output port. This output port can have a complex type (such
519 as a tuple), so having just a single output port does not create a
522 Each function application in turn becomes component instantiation.
523 Here, the result of each argument expression is assigned to a
524 signal, which is mapped to the corresponding input port. The output
525 port of the function is also mapped to a signal, which is used as
526 the result of the application itself.
528 Since every top level function generates its own component, the
529 hierarchy of of function calls is reflected in the final \VHDL\
530 output as well, creating a hierarchical \VHDL\ description of the
531 hardware. This separation in different components makes the
532 resulting \VHDL\ output easier to read and debug.
534 Example that defines the \texttt{mac} function by applying the
535 \texttt{add} and \texttt{mul} functions to calculate $a * b + c$:
538 mac a b c = add (mul a b) c
544 Although describing components and connections allows describing a
545 lot of hardware designs already, there is an obvious thing missing:
546 choice. We need some way to be able to choose between values based
547 on another value. In Haskell, choice is achieved by \hs{case}
548 expressions, \hs{if} expressions, pattern matching and guards.
550 The easiest of these are of course case expressions (and \hs{if}
551 expressions, which can be very directly translated to \hs{case}
552 expressions). A \hs{case} expression can in turn simply be
553 translated to a conditional assignment in \VHDL, where the
554 conditions use equality comparisons against the constructors in the
555 \hs{case} expressions.
557 A slightly more complex (but very powerful) form of choice is
558 pattern matching. A function can be defined in multiple clauses,
559 where each clause specifies a pattern. When the arguments match the
560 pattern, the corresponding clause will be used.
562 A pattern match (with optional guards) can also be implemented using
563 conditional assignments in \VHDL, where the condition is the logical
564 and of comparison results of each part of the pattern as well as the
567 Contrived example that sums two values when they are equal or
568 non-equal (depending on the predicate given) and returns 0
569 otherwise. This shows three implementations, one using and if
570 expression, one using only case expressions and one using pattern
574 sumif pred a b = if pred == Eq && a == b ||
575 pred == Neq && a != b
579 sumif pred a b = case pred of
583 Neq -> case a != b of
587 sumif Eq a b | a == b = a + b
588 sumif Neq a b | a != b = a + b
595 Translation of two most basic functional concepts has been
596 discussed: function application and choice. Before looking further
597 into less obvious concepts like higher-order expressions and
598 polymorphism, the possible types that can be used in hardware
599 descriptions will be discussed.
601 Some way is needed to translate every value used to its hardware
602 equivalents. In particular, this means a hardware equivalent for
603 every \emph{type} used in a hardware description is needed.
605 The following types are \emph{built-in}, meaning that their hardware
606 translation is fixed into the \CLaSH compiler. A designer can also
607 define his own types, which will be translated into hardware types
608 using translation rules that are discussed later on.
610 \subsection{Built-in types}
613 This is the most basic type available. It can have two values:
614 \hs{Low} and \hs{High}. It is mapped directly onto the
615 \texttt{std\_logic} \VHDL\ type.
617 This is a basic logic type. It can have two values: \hs{True}
618 and \hs{False}. It is translated to \texttt{std\_logic} exactly
619 like the \hs{Bit} type (where a value of \hs{True} corresponds
620 to a value of \hs{High}). Supporting the Bool type is
621 particularly useful to support \hs{if ... then ... else ...}
622 expressions, which always have a \hs{Bool} value for the
624 \item[\hs{SizedWord}, \hs{SizedInt}]
625 These are types to represent integers. A \hs{SizedWord} is unsigned,
626 while a \hs{SizedInt} is signed. These types are parametrized by a
627 length type, so you can define an unsigned word of 32 bits wide as
631 type Word32 = SizedWord D32
634 Here, a type synonym \hs{Word32} is defined that is equal to the
635 \hs{SizedWord} type constructor applied to the type \hs{D32}. \hs{D32}
636 is the \emph{type level representation} of the decimal number 32,
637 making the \hs{Word32} type a 32-bit unsigned word.
639 These types are translated to the \VHDL\ \texttt{unsigned} and
640 \texttt{signed} respectively.
642 This is a vector type, that can contain elements of any other type and
645 The \hs{Vector} type constructor takes two type arguments: the length
646 of the vector and the type of the elements contained in it. The state
647 type of an 8 element register bank would then for example be:
650 type RegisterState = Vector D8 Word32
653 Here, a type synonym \hs{RegisterState} is defined that is equal to
654 the \hs{Vector} type constructor applied to the types \hs{D8} (The type
655 level representation of the decimal number 8) and \hs{Word32} (The 32
656 bit word type as defined above). In other words, the
657 \hs{RegisterState} type is a vector of 8 32-bit words.
659 A fixed size vector is translated to a \VHDL\ array type.
660 \item[\hs{RangedWord}]
661 This is another type to describe integers, but unlike the previous
662 two it has no specific bit-width, but an upper bound. This means that
663 its range is not limited to powers of two, but can be any number.
664 A \hs{RangedWord} only has an upper bound, its lower bound is
667 The main purpose of the \hs{RangedWord} type is to be used as an
668 index to a \hs{Vector}.
670 TODO: Perhaps remove this example?
672 To define an index for the 8 element vector above, we would do:
675 type RegisterIndex = RangedWord D7
678 Here, a type synonym \hs{RegisterIndex} is defined that is equal to
679 the \hs{RangedWord} type constructor applied to the type \hs{D7}. In
680 other words, this defines an unsigned word with values from
681 0 to 7 (inclusive). This word can be be used to index the
682 8 element vector \hs{RegisterState} above.
684 This type is translated to the \texttt{unsigned} \VHDL type.
687 \subsection{User-defined types}
688 There are three ways to define new types in Haskell: algebraic
689 data-types with the \hs{data} keyword, type synonyms with the \hs{type}
690 keyword and type renamings with the \hs{newtype} keyword. \GHC\
691 offers a few more advanced ways to introduce types (type families,
692 existential typing, {\small{GADT}}s, etc.) which are not standard
693 Haskell. These are not currently supported.
695 Only an algebraic datatype declaration actually introduces a
696 completely new type, for which we provide the \VHDL\ translation
697 below. Type synonyms and renamings only define new names for
698 existing types (where synonyms are completely interchangeable and
699 renamings need explicit conversion). Therefore, these do not need
700 any particular \VHDL\ translation, a synonym or renamed type will
701 just use the same representation as the original type. The
702 distinction between a renaming and a synonym does no longer matter
703 in hardware and can be disregarded in the generated \VHDL.
705 For algebraic types, we can make the following distinction:
708 \item[\bf{Single constructor}]
709 Algebraic datatypes with a single constructor with one or more
710 fields, are essentially a way to pack a few values together in a
711 record-like structure.
713 An example of such a type is the following pair of integers:
716 data IntPair = IntPair Int Int
719 Haskell's builtin tuple types are also defined as single
720 constructor algebraic types and are translated according to this
721 rule by the \CLaSH compiler.
723 These types are translated to \VHDL\ record types, with one field for
724 every field in the constructor.
725 \item[\bf{No fields}]
726 Algebraic datatypes with multiple constructors, but without any
727 fields are essentially a way to get an enumeration-like type
728 containing alternatives.
730 Note that Haskell's \hs{Bool} type is also defined as an
731 enumeration type, but we have a fixed translation for that.
733 These types are translated to \VHDL\ enumerations, with one value for
734 each constructor. This allows references to these constructors to be
735 translated to the corresponding enumeration value.
736 \item[\bf{Multiple constructors with fields}]
737 Algebraic datatypes with multiple constructors, where at least
738 one of these constructors has one or more fields are not
743 A very important concept in hardware it the concept of state. In a
744 stateful design, the outputs depend on the history of the inputs, or the
745 state. State is usually stored in registers, which retain their value
746 during a clock cycle. As we want to describe more than simple
747 combinatorial designs, \CLaSH\ needs an abstraction mechanism for state.
749 An important property in Haskell, and in most other functional languages,
750 is \emph{purity}. A function is said to be \emph{pure} if it satisfies two
753 \item given the same arguments twice, it should return the same value in
755 \item when the function is called, it should not have observable
758 This purity property is important for functional languages, since it
759 enables all kinds of mathematical reasoning that could not be guaranteed
760 correct for impure functions. Pure functions are as such a perfect match
761 for a combinatorial circuit, where the output solely depends on the
762 inputs. When a circuit has state however, it can no longer be simply
763 described by a pure function. Simply removing the purity property is not a
764 valid option, as the language would then lose many of it mathematical
765 properties. In an effort to include the concept of state in pure
766 functions, the current value of the state is made an argument of the
767 function; the updated state becomes part of the result.
769 A simple example is the description of an accumulator circuit:
771 acc :: Word -> State Word -> (State Word, Word)
772 acc inp (State s) = (State s', outp)
777 This approach makes the state of a function very explicit: which variables
778 are part of the state is completely determined by the type signature. This
779 approach to state is well suited to be used in combination with the
780 existing code and language features, such as all the choice constructs, as
781 state values are just normal values.
782 \section{\CLaSH\ prototype}
786 \section{Related work}
787 Many functional hardware description languages have been developed over the
788 years. Early work includes such languages as $\mu$\acro{FP}~\cite{muFP}, an
789 extension of Backus' \acro{FP} language to synchronous streams, designed
790 particularly for describing and reasoning about regular circuits. The
791 Ruby~\cite{Ruby} language uses relations, instead of functions, to describe
792 circuits, and has a particular focus on layout. \acro{HML}~\cite{HML2} is a
793 hardware modeling language based on the strict functional language
794 \acro{ML}, and has support for polymorphic types and higher-order functions.
795 Published work suggests that there is no direct simulation support for
796 \acro{HML}, and that the translation to \VHDL\ is only partial.
798 Like this work, many functional hardware description languages have some sort
799 of foundation in the functional programming language Haskell.
800 Hawk~\cite{Hawk1} uses Haskell to describe system-level executable
801 specifications used to model the behavior of superscalar microprocessors. Hawk
802 specifications can be simulated, but there seems to be no support for
803 automated circuit synthesis. The ForSyDe~\cite{ForSyDe2} system uses Haskell
804 to specify abstract system models, which can (manually) be transformed into an
805 implementation model using semantic preserving transformations. ForSyDe has
806 several simulation and synthesis backends, though synthesis is restricted to
807 the synchronous subset of the ForSyDe language.
809 Lava~\cite{Lava} is a hardware description language that focuses on the
810 structural representation of hardware. Besides support for simulation and
811 circuit synthesis, Lava descriptions can be interfaced with formal method
812 tools for formal verification. Lava descriptions are actually circuit
813 generators when viewed from a synthesis viewpoint, in that the language
814 elements of Haskell, such as choice, can be used to guide the circuit
815 generation. If a developer wants to insert a choice element inside an actual
816 circuit he will have to specify this explicitly as a component. In this
817 respect \CLaSH\ differs from Lava, in that all the choice elements, such as
818 case-statements and pattern matching, are synthesized to choice elements in the
819 eventual circuit. As such, richer control structures can both be specified and
820 synthesized in \CLaSH\ compared to any of the languages mentioned in this
823 The merits of polymorphic typing, combined with higher-order functions, are
824 now also recognized in the `main-stream' hardware description languages,
825 exemplified by the new \VHDL\-2008 standard~\cite{VHDL2008}. \VHDL-2008 has
826 support to specify types as generics, thus allowing a developer to describe
827 polymorphic components. Note that those types still require an explicit
828 generic map, whereas type-inference and type-specialization are implicit in
831 % Wired~\cite{Wired},, T-Ruby~\cite{T-Ruby}, Hydra~\cite{Hydra}.
833 % A functional language designed specifically for hardware design is
834 % $re{\mathit{FL}}^{ect}$~\cite{reFLect}, which draws experience from earlier
835 % language called \acro{FL}~\cite{FL} to la
837 % An example of a floating figure using the graphicx package.
838 % Note that \label must occur AFTER (or within) \caption.
839 % For figures, \caption should occur after the \includegraphics.
840 % Note that IEEEtran v1.7 and later has special internal code that
841 % is designed to preserve the operation of \label within \caption
842 % even when the captionsoff option is in effect. However, because
843 % of issues like this, it may be the safest practice to put all your
844 % \label just after \caption rather than within \caption{}.
846 % Reminder: the "draftcls" or "draftclsnofoot", not "draft", class
847 % option should be used if it is desired that the figures are to be
848 % displayed while in draft mode.
852 %\includegraphics[width=2.5in]{myfigure}
853 % where an .eps filename suffix will be assumed under latex,
854 % and a .pdf suffix will be assumed for pdflatex; or what has been declared
855 % via \DeclareGraphicsExtensions.
856 %\caption{Simulation Results}
860 % Note that IEEE typically puts floats only at the top, even when this
861 % results in a large percentage of a column being occupied by floats.
864 % An example of a double column floating figure using two subfigures.
865 % (The subfig.sty package must be loaded for this to work.)
866 % The subfigure \label commands are set within each subfloat command, the
867 % \label for the overall figure must come after \caption.
868 % \hfil must be used as a separator to get equal spacing.
869 % The subfigure.sty package works much the same way, except \subfigure is
870 % used instead of \subfloat.
873 %\centerline{\subfloat[Case I]\includegraphics[width=2.5in]{subfigcase1}%
874 %\label{fig_first_case}}
876 %\subfloat[Case II]{\includegraphics[width=2.5in]{subfigcase2}%
877 %\label{fig_second_case}}}
878 %\caption{Simulation results}
882 % Note that often IEEE papers with subfigures do not employ subfigure
883 % captions (using the optional argument to \subfloat), but instead will
884 % reference/describe all of them (a), (b), etc., within the main caption.
887 % An example of a floating table. Note that, for IEEE style tables, the
888 % \caption command should come BEFORE the table. Table text will default to
889 % \footnotesize as IEEE normally uses this smaller font for tables.
890 % The \label must come after \caption as always.
893 %% increase table row spacing, adjust to taste
894 %\renewcommand{\arraystretch}{1.3}
895 % if using array.sty, it might be a good idea to tweak the value of
896 % \extrarowheight as needed to properly center the text within the cells
897 %\caption{An Example of a Table}
898 %\label{table_example}
900 %% Some packages, such as MDW tools, offer better commands for making tables
901 %% than the plain LaTeX2e tabular which is used here.
902 %\begin{tabular}{|c||c|}
912 % Note that IEEE does not put floats in the very first column - or typically
913 % anywhere on the first page for that matter. Also, in-text middle ("here")
914 % positioning is not used. Most IEEE journals/conferences use top floats
915 % exclusively. Note that, LaTeX2e, unlike IEEE journals/conferences, places
916 % footnotes above bottom floats. This can be corrected via the \fnbelowfloat
917 % command of the stfloats package.
922 The conclusion goes here.
927 % conference papers do not normally have an appendix
930 % use section* for acknowledgement
931 \section*{Acknowledgment}
934 The authors would like to thank...
940 % trigger a \newpage just before the given reference
941 % number - used to balance the columns on the last page
942 % adjust value as needed - may need to be readjusted if
943 % the document is modified later
944 %\IEEEtriggeratref{8}
945 % The "triggered" command can be changed if desired:
946 %\IEEEtriggercmd{\enlargethispage{-5in}}
950 % can use a bibliography generated by BibTeX as a .bbl file
951 % BibTeX documentation can be easily obtained at:
952 % http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/biblio/bibtex/contrib/doc/
953 % The IEEEtran BibTeX style support page is at:
954 % http://www.michaelshell.org/tex/ieeetran/bibtex/
955 \bibliographystyle{IEEEtran}
956 % argument is your BibTeX string definitions and bibliography database(s)
957 \bibliography{IEEEabrv,clash.bib}
959 % <OR> manually copy in the resultant .bbl file
960 % set second argument of \begin to the number of references
961 % (used to reserve space for the reference number labels box)
962 % \begin{thebibliography}{1}
964 % \bibitem{IEEEhowto:kopka}
965 % H.~Kopka and P.~W. Daly, \emph{A Guide to \LaTeX}, 3rd~ed.\hskip 1em plus
966 % 0.5em minus 0.4em\relax Harlow, England: Addison-Wesley, 1999.
968 % \end{thebibliography}
976 % vim: set ai sw=2 sts=2 expandtab: